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As the 20th century began, most of Africa, with the exception of Ethiopia, Somalia and Liberia, was under colonial rule. By the 1980s, most nations were independent. Military systems reflect this evolution in several ways: *Growth of indigenous knowledge and skill in handling modern arms *Established colonial armies of mainly indigenous troops officered by Europeans *Rebellions, resistance and "mop up" operations *Weakening of European colonial power due to World War I and World War II *Decolonization and the transition to the militaries of the new African states *Wars of national liberation across the continent particularly the northern and southern regions *Frequent tribal or civil wars across the continent *Frequent military coups against the post colonial regimes *Continued strength of regional powers like Egypt and South Africa *The rise of asymmetric forces and failed states *The rise of international forces and bureaucracies *Continued challenges and evolution into the 21st century For events prior to 1800, see African military systems to 1800. For events between 1800 and 1900, see African military systems (1800–1900). For an overall view of the military history of Africa by region, see Military History of Africa. Below are the major activities and events that shaped African military systems into the 20th and 21st century. ==Rebellions, resistance and "mop up" operations== By 1900, the imperial powers had won most of the initial major battles against indigenous powers, or had occupied strategic areas such as coastlines, to secure their dominance. Colonies were established or expanded across the landscape- sometimes eagerly, as in the case of major mineral finds- or sometimes forced on the imperial center by the outlying actions of grasping or ambitious settlers, merchants, military officers, and bureaucrats. The complexity of African responses to the new order defies a simple narrative of good versus evil.〔Bruce Vandervort, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa: 1830–1914, Indiana University Press: 1998, pp. 6–37〕 In some cases the intruders were welcomed as useful allies, saviours or counterweights in local disputes. In other cases, they were bitterly resisted. In some areas, the colonial regimes brought massive land confiscations, violence and what some see as genocide.〔Hochschild, Adam, ''King Leopold's Ghost: A story of greed, terror and heroism in colonial Africa'', Pan Macmillan: London, 1998〕 In others they brought education, better security, new products and skills, and improved standards of infrastructure and living.〔 The historical record shows destructive operations by both indigenous hegemony and foreign intruders. Some of the methods used by the colonial powers are also reflected in armed European conflicts. Murdered peasants, livestock and grain seizures, arbitrary quartering of troops, and massive theft and looting by roaming armies for example, are common occurrences in various eras of European military history. Napoleon's brutal occupation of Spain is but one example.〔 Nor did the colonial era see a complete cessation of purely internal disputes and wars. These were much reduced from the 19th century due to the colonial conquests, but still occurred in some areas with varying levels of intensity. Some limited areas of North Africa, such as Libya, were still under the sway of non-European powers like the Ottomans, adding to the complexity of the colonial situation.〔Gann, L. H. and Duignan, Peter, ''Burden of Empire – an Appraisal of Western Colonialism in Africa South of the Sahara'', Pall Mall Press. London 1968. Reviewed in 〕 Whatever the balance sheet in different areas, it is clear that consolidation and exploitation of the new territories involved a large measure of coercion, and this often provoked a military reply. The exact form of such coercion varied- it could be land seizures, forced labor, hut taxes, interference in local quarrels, monopolism of trade, small-scale punitive expeditions, or outright warfare of genocidal intensity as that waged by the Germans against the Herero and Namaqua (or ''Nama'') in southwest Africa.〔 African military responses in this "mop up" or "pacification" period of the century's first decades were diverse- ranging from minor rebellions and revolts, sustained guerilla warfare, and full scale clashes. Only a few of these varying responses are considered here in terms of African military systems. *Cavalry: the demise of the Sokoto Caliphate, one of the major powers in the savannah regions of West Africa *Guerilla warfare: the Herrero and Nama versus the Germans *Major warfare: the massive Rif War in Spanish Morocco 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「African military systems after 1900」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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